Alopecia Areata: Causes, Types and Symptoms

Alopecia Areata: Causes, Types and Symptoms Alopecia areata can affect any hair-bearing area and can also involve nails. A peribulbar lymphocytic infiltrate in a swarm of bees pattern is characteristic of the acute stage of the disease leading to a dystrophic anagen phase. There may also be increased psychiatric morbidity in patients with alopecia areata. Ikeda (2) classified alopecia areata into four types including the common type (81%), the atopic type (10%), the autoimmune type (5%) and the prehypertensive type (4%) The course of the disease is unpredictable and the response to treatment is variable. The various treatment modalities used can be classified into topical and systemic therapies. The topical therapy includes intralesional corticosteroid, topical corticosteroids, minoxidil, anthralin and topical immunotherapy in the form of diphenylcyclopropenone (DPCP) and squaric acid dibutylester (SADBE). The systemic therapy includes systemic corticosteroids and photochemotherapy. Cyclosporine, methotrexate, sulphasalazine and biologics like etanercept, efalizumab, adalimumab and infliximab have been used with limited success. Intralesional corticosteroids are the treatment of choice for adults with less than 50% of scalp area involvement. The sensitivity of picking up clinical response to treatment by a clinical examination is very variable and has interindividual variation. Dermoscopy is a noninvasive diagnostic tool which visualizes subtle patterns of skin lesions not normally visible to the unaided eye. It is performed by a hand held or a video dermoscope equipped with lenses that currently allow magnifications ranging from 10 to 1000, the images obtained can be visualized on a monitor and stored using specific software on a personal computer, to identify and compare changes over time.(3) The characteristic features of alopecia areata on dermoscopy (4) are yellow dots, black dots, broken hair, vellus hair and tapering or exclamation mark hair. After therapy there is a decrease in the number of these characteristic findings. On the other hand, the presence of thin and unpigmented vellus hair within the patch, and evidence of transformation of vellus hair into terminal hair, appearing as increased proximal shaft thickness and pigmentation, are characteristic of remitting disease and indicative of a response to treatment. The present study is being undertaken to evaluate the efficacy of intralesional triamcinolone acetonide in the treatment of alopecia areata and to assess its local and systemic side effects. Dermoscopy has been used to identify signs of early clinical response to the chosen therapeutic regimen. The useful markers to assess the severity of alopecia areata on dermoscopy are the black dots, yellow dots, broken hairs or dystrophic hair, tapering or exclamation mark hair and short vellus hairs. Previous reports have suggested that the severity of alopecia areata is an important prognostic factor. Therefore, dermoscopic examination of patches of alopecia areata may provide predictors of the response to therapy and can also be utilized for monitoring response to any prescribed regimen. Definition Alopecia areata is an autoimmune disease of uncertain etiology that involves the hair follicle and sometimes the nail and is usually reversible. Although autoimmune, genetic and environmental factors have been implicated but the exact pathogenesis is yet to be elucidated. History Hippocrates first used the term alopecia which literally means foxs disease. The characteristics of alopecia areata were first described by Cornelius Celsus in 30 A.D., who described two forms of alopecia. The first he described as complete baldness occurring in people of all ages. The second he called ophiasis, which literally means snake, due to the pattern in which the hair loss spreads across the scalp and also suggested that ophiasis was only seen in children. Alopecia areata is sometimes also referred to as area celsi in tribute to Cornelius Celsus. Alopecia areata has been given many different names throughout history. However, the actual term alopecia areata was first used by Sauvages in his Nosologica Medica, published in 1760 in Lyons, France. From the beginning of 19th century there was considerable debate about the cause of alopecia areata. Two main hypotheses were put forward, one based on parasitic infection by Gruby in 1843 and Radcliffe-Crocker in 1903 and the other based on a nervous disorder by Von Barensrung in 1858. The parasitic hypothesis drew support from the pattern in which alopecia developed -expanding slowly in size just as a local infection would. Even more significant were the apparent epidemics of alopecia areata reported to occur in institutions such as orphanages and schools. However, many attempts to isolate an infective organism and to transfer alopecia areata by inoculation failed. The initiation of alopecia areata by a nervous disorder, known as the trophoneurotic, neurotrophic or neuropathic hypothesis, eventually gained the support of most dermatologists of the time. This vague hypothesis could be supported by the apparently frequent clinical observations of emotional or physical stress and trauma that were associated with the onset of alopecia areata and often reported in the medical journals of that time. Emotional stress and physical damage were believed to adversely affect hair follicles via the nervous system and Joseph in 1886 showed that patchy hair loss could apparently be induced by cutting nerves in the necks of cats (it was later suggested that the hair loss was actually due to the cats scratching themselves). The idea circulated among dermatologists for many years because it was very difficult to fundamentally prove or disprove that alopecia areata was a nervous disorder. The hypothesis is still supported by some dermatologists today. One of the more unusual variations on the neuropathic origin of alopecia areata was put forward by Jacquet in 1902 who suggested that alopecia areata was initiated by sources of nerve irritation such as defective and diseased teeth. Jacquets hypothesis was apparently confirmed by Decelle 1909, although Baily in 1910 showed dental disease to be equally frequent in people without alopecia areata. Eye strain was another suggested cause of alopecia areata by Kinnear 1939. With the start of the twentieth century, alopecia areata was known to be associated with disorders of the endocrine glands, particularly the thyroid. As such, some believed the underlying cause of alopecia areata was due to a hormone dysfunction. By the 1920s most dermatologists had abandoned the parasitic theory of alopecia areata and favoured variations on the trophoneurotic and endocrine theories often combining the two. Sufferers of alopecia areata were under extensive mental stress from fear that they would be suspected of having syphilis. Until the advent of antibiotics, syphilis was a widespread, contagious disease and it also often manifests itself by sudden, rapid loss of hair in well-defined patches, just like alopecia areata. Syphilis in the secondary stage can also affect finger nails. To further complicate the matter, some dermatologists suggested that alopecia areata could be found in increased association with syphilis as distinct from the direct action of syphilis on hair follicles. Syphilis was believed to induce alopecia areata by the mental distress it created and its possible upset of the endocrine system. These clearly visible symptoms of syphilis were often confused with alopecia areata by the general population and resulted in social ostracism for the sufferer. The early 20th century saw the development of another hypothesis of alopecia areata induction based on toxic agents. An unknown poison was believed to be introduced to the hair follicle via the blood system inducing hair loss. The sudden remission and relapse of alopecia areata and its action simultaneously over the body was believed to support the idea. Also in support, injection of thallium acetate (rat poison) was shown to induce alopecia areata like hair loss in some patients, with expression of exclamation mark hairs a diagnostic feature of alopecia areata. However, the toxic origin of alopecia areata never gained widespread popularity against the neuropathic and endocrine hypothesis. It is now widely believed that alopecia areata is an autoimmune disease. Even though studies more than 100 years old showed that alopecia areata affected hair follicles were invaded by inflammatory cells by Giovannini in 1891, the inflammatory autoimmune disease hypothesis did not become popular until the 1960s. The idea was first proposed by Rothman in a discussion of a paper by Van Scott in 1958. Treatment of alopecia areata by intradermal corticosteroid injections has been practised for many years. Kalkoff and Macher in 1958 were the first to have reported a series using hydrocortisone. Thereafter, Orentreich et al in1960 and Gombinger and Malkinson in 1961 reported the use of prednisolone and triamcinolone, and Porter and Burton in 1971 used triamcinolone acetonide and hexacetonide. Moynahan and Bowyer in 1965 and Verbov and Abell in 1970 reported the initial use of jet injection apparatuses in a number of conditions including alopecia areata.(6) Epidemiology Alopecia areata occurs worldwide and there is no racial or sex prelidiction. It is a common disease forming 0.7% to 3.8% of patients seen by dermatologists. (7) In the United States, alopecia areata was estimated to occur in 0.1% to 0.2% of the general population, with a lifetime risk of 1.7%.(1) Sixty percent patients present with their first patch below 20 years of age.(8) One study suggests that 85.5% of Asian patients with alopecia areata have disease onset before the age of 40 years.(9) The disease prevalence peaks between the second and the fourth decade of life. A family history is found in 5%-25% of patients.(10) Natural History Natural history that includes the severity, course and prognosis is highly unpredictable and it can be said that the only thing predictable about its course and prognosis is that it is unpredictable. With the available information at present the spontaneous remission rates have ranged from 34% to 80% within one year and 15% to 25% patients progress to total loss of scalp hair (alopecia totalis) or loss of the entire scalp and body hair (alopecia universalis), of which only 10% eventually recover. (11,12) It is a non-scarring alopecia and is reversible but it can be recurrent and abrupt and in long standing cases scarring can occur. Etiology Alopecia areata is a chronic, autoimmune, organ specific disease, probably mediated by autoreactive T cells, which affect hair follicles and sometimes the nails. The increased frequency of other autoimmune diseases favours the above postulation. Hair follicle autoantibodies are also found although it is unlikely that these are involved in the pathogenesis of the disease. Genetic factors: Most reports describe the prevalence of positive family history to be in the range of 10 to 20% but it is believed that some mild cases may be overlooked or concealed and hence the actual figure may be greater. Price and Colombe (13) found a family history of alopecia areata was more common in those who had a disease onset before the age of 30 years (37% compared with 7.1% in those with onset after 30 years). A study amongst monozygotic and dizygotic pairs found a concordance rate of 55% for monozygotic twins and no concordance amongst dizygotic twins.(14) The genetic basis of inheritance appears to be multifactorial and polygenic and not a simple Mendelian pattern. The strongest associations have been with major histocompatibility complex (MHC), particularly the Class II alleles HLA-DQB1*0301 and HLA-DRB1*1104 and the association is linked to chromosome 6p and few susceptibility loci on chromosomes 10, 16 and 18. (15,16) Atopy: Several studies have reported an association and also suggested an earlier age of onset and more severe disease in atopic individuals.(17,18) Autoimmunity: A statistically significant association between alopecia areata and Hashimotos thyroiditis, Addisons disease and pernicious anemia has been reported. It is also associated with other autoimmune diseases like vitiligo, lichen planus, Sjogrens syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus, morphea, lichen sclerosus, pemphigus foliaceus, ulcerative colitis, myasthenia gravis, autoimmune haemolytic anemia, diabetes mellitus, autoimmune testicular and ovarian disease, Downs syndrome (in which other autoimmune disorders are common) and autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dysplasia syndrome (also called as autoimmune polyglandular syndrome-1) which is an autosomal recessive disorder in which there are mutations in autoimmune regulator gene.(19) There is also evidence of circulating organ specific antibodies against thyroid, gastric parietal cell, adrenal tissue, smooth muscle, testis and the ovaries. The cells in the lower part of hair follicle have low or absent expression of MHC proteins and the loss of this immune privilege leading to induction of CD8+ T cell-mediated immunity against follicular melanocytes is hypothesized to be causative of alopecia areata. This explains the peribulbar lymphocytic infiltrate and also the sparing of white hair in the patch and hence leads to what is commonly called as the phenomena of overnight greying. Environmental factors Infection: Prior notion of alopecia areata being due to infection directly or due to a remote focus of infection has a long history and was very popular till the middle of 20th century. Skinner et al (20) reported finding mRNA for cytomegalovirus in alopecia areata lesions. Few reports of coexistence in husband and wife but many have refuted this and likened it to be a mere coincidence. Stress: Is suggested to be an important precipitating factor and this also explains cures by sleep therapy, reassurance and suggestion therapy. Such patients may also have stress associated depression and the finding of elevated serotonin levels in such patients lends support to the theory. It has been seen that there is aberrant expression of estrogen receptor -1 in the hair follicles of diseased mouse with alopecia areata. Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) can induce mast cell differentiation from hair follicle mesenchyme and the CRH/receptor activity is seen to be high in alopecia areata skin.(21) Diet: Iron deficiency has been postulated to modulate the hair loss in alopecia areata. The mechanism is by inhibiting the rate-limiting enzyme for DNA synthesis and hence it diminishes the proliferative capacity of hair follicle matrix cells.(22) It has also been seen that dietary soy intake increases the resistance to the development of alopecia areata. A study in a Japanese population living in Hawaii, where a Westernized non soy diet predominates, showed disproportionally higher alopecia areata incidence.(23) Other factors that have been implicated include hormones, drugs, and vaccinations. These factors may increase or decrease susceptibility to the disease onset, pattern, severity, duration and response to treatment by modifying the physical and biochemical status of the immune system and hair follicles.(24) Pathogenesis and pathology: There are four key phases in the normal hair cycle which includes the anagen (growth) phase, the catagen (regression) phase, the telogen (resting) phase, and the exogen (controlled shedding phase). When the new hair cycle begins the old hair fiber is shed from the hair follicle in the exogen phase and hence this maintains the overall hair density of the scalp. If the exogen occurs before the anagen is renewed or there is a dystrophic anagen then this leads to a state called kenogen in which there is no hair fiber in the hair follicle.(24) Thus the patch of alopecia areata can be said to be in a state of kenogen. When the amount of inflammatory infiltrate around the hair follicle increases this can lead to miniaturization of the hair follicles and shortening of the hair cycle with rapid changes from anagen to telogen leading to the formation of nanogen hair follicles which is an intermediate stage between terminal and vellus anagen.(25) In the acute stage of the disease there is a swarm of bees infiltration of CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes into the peribulbar space of anagen stage hair follicles and some penetration of lymphocytes to intrafollicular locations which leads to a state of dystrophic anagen. This disrupts the ability of the hair follicle to produce hair fibres of sufficient length and integrity and the expelled hair fiber is not replaced by a fiber that can produce adequate scalp coverage, hence leading to alopecia.(25) Hair follicles are smaller than normal and do not develop beyond the Anagen 3-4 stage, where the actual hair shaft begins to form and return prematurely to telogen. As more and more hair follicle move to telogen phase the amount of inflammation decreases. At this stage most of the inflammation is localized to the papillary dermis around the miniaturized hair follicles. In all stages of the disease, there can also be a diffuse infiltration of eosinophils and mast cells into the disease affected skin. There is no inflammatory infiltrate which is seen around the isthmus of the hair follicle which is the site for the stem cells. Thus the pathological location of the disease process saves the stem cells from destruction and makes it a reversible and non-scarring alopecia. Trichocytes in the in the hair bulb matrix undergoing early cortical differentiation show vacuolar degeneration and are also the predominant cell types showing aberrant class I and II MHC expression.(10) Classification: Ikedas classification (2) The atopic type (10%) begins during childhood or adolescence and progresses slowly over many years with individual patches lasting more than one year. Ophiasis and reticular patterns are common and the chances of developing total alopecia are very high (30-75%). The autoimmune type (5%), affects the middle aged, runs a prolonged and led to alopecia totalis in 10%-50%. The prehypertensive type (4%) occurred in young adults whose one or both parents were hypertensive progressed faster and led to total alopecia in 40%. Reticular pattern is common. The common type (81%) is the prototype of the fast progressive form of disease that affects adults aged between 20-40 years. No associated conditions and individual patches last less than 6 months and there is spontaneous regrowth occuring within 3 years. Alopecia totalis may develop in 5%-15%. Based on the pattern of alopecia: Restricted to the scalp Patchy Ophiasis Sisaphio Reticulate Diffuse Subtotal Alopecia totalis Generalized Alopecia universalis Clinical features: Alopecia areata may begin at any age but the disease incidence peaks between 20-40 years of age and has an equal sex incidence. The characteristic initial lesion is a well circumscribed, totally bald smooth patch in which the skin appears slightly reddened. The disease is asymptomatic but few patients may complain of itching and burning prior to the onset of the lesions. During the active phase of the disease short easily extractable broken hairs are seen at the margins of the bald patches which are known as exclamation mark hairs and hair pull test is positive.(26) Subsequent course is highly unpredictable. The initial patch may regrow hair or it may increase in size and new patches may appear after a variable interval. The succeeding patches may become confluent. In some cases the initial hair loss is diffuse and total scalp denudation has been reported in 48 hours. Regrowth is initially of fine vellus unpigmented hair and later these assume their normal thickness and pigmentation. It is possible that regrowth may occur in one region while alopecia is extending in another region.(10) Alopecia areata may affect any hair bearing skin but the scalp is involved in 90% of patients. The eyebrows and eyelashes may be associated with hair loss elsewhere or may be the only site affected. The term alopecia totalis (AT) is used when complete loss of all scalp hair occurs and alopecia universalis (AU) when there is loss of all body hair. About 5% of patients progress to AT/AU. A new variant has been described by Sato-Kawamura et al (27) called as diffuse and total alopecia which has a favourable prognosis but has rapid progression and extensive involvement. The disease process preferentially affects the pigmented hair and spares the white hair thus leading to the phenomena popularly known as the overnight greying of hair but this is a relative process as white hairs are also lost albeit less as compared to pigmented ones. Hair regrowth may be initially nonpigmented but later complete pigmentation occurs. Nail involvement occurs in 10%-15% of patients in which the most characteristic feature is fine stippled pitting but sometimes there may also be trachyonychia, red or mottled lunulae, nail thinning and ridging, discoloration that includes longitudinally arranged punctate leuconychia, splitting, onychodystrophy and onycholysis may be seen.(26) Some studies have reported psychiatric diseases like mood disturbances and anxiety and ophthalmological findings like asymptomatic lens opacities and fundus changes.(28,29) Poor prognostic indicators:(10) Early age of onset Extensive scalp involvement (>50% scalp) Loss of eyebrows and eyelashes Alopecia totalis or universalis Recurrent episode Patterns ophiasis, sisaphio, reticular Nail changes: Pits, onychodystrophy, onycholysis, anonychia Associated systemic disorders: atopy, hypertension and connective tissue disease. Associated genetic disorder: Down syndrome Family history of alopecia areata Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) -173*C gene INVESTIGATIONS: 1. Trichogram/ hair pluck test:(30) To perform the pluck test, hairs are taken from the specified sites on the fifth day after the last shampoo. The surrounding hairs are fixed with clips and 60-80 hairs are grasped with a hemostat covered with rubber. The hairs are plucked, twisting and lifting the hair shafts rapidly in the direction of immergence from the scalp. Hair shafts are then cut off 1cm above the root sheaths and roots are arranged side by side on a slide and then taped. The anagen hair bulbs are seen as darkly pigmented triangular or delta-shaped bulbs with an angle to the hair shaft and there is presence of inner root sheath. The telogen hair is seen as less pigmented hair with club-shaped hair bulb and there is absence of inner root sheath. Anagen hairs are distinguished from the telogen hairs and anagen to telogen ratio is calculated. Trichogram in alopecia areata reveals a mixed telogen-dystrophic pattern. Telogen hairs predominate in the slowly growing patches, whereas dystrophic anagen hair forms the majority in rapidly progressing disease. 2. Scalp biopsy:(10) A peribulbar lymphocytic infiltrate in a swarm of bees pattern is characteristic of the acute stage of the disease, in which the number of follicles is normal and many are in catagen or telogen. In the later stages, only a few lymphocytes or eosinophils are present in fibrous tracts and in a peribulbar location. Many follicles in early anagen stage are observed in this late stage and the actual number of hair follicles may be reduced. 3. Dermoscopy: A dermoscope is a non-invasive diagnostic modality which can be used to visualize fine details of skin lesions and even subsurface skin lesions which are not visible to the naked eye. It is also called as skin surface microscope, epiluminescence microscope or an episcope. An advantage of their use is the storage of the results and their reproducibility. (3) The history of dermoscopy:(31) Skin surface microscopy began in Europe when in the year 1663, Kolhaus used a microscope for examining the small vessels in the nail fold. In 1878, Abbe described the use of immersion oil in light microscopy and this principle was transferred to skin surface microscopy by the German dermatologist, Unna, in 1893. He introduced the term diascopy and described the use of immersion oil and a glass spatula for the interpretation of lichen planus and for the evaluation of the infiltrate in lupus erythematosus. The term dermatoscopy was introduced in 1920 by the German dermatologist Johann Saphier, when he used a used a new diagnostic tool which resembled a binocular microscope with a built-in light source. The term dermoscopy was introduced by Goldman from the United States when he used this new technique for the evaluation of pigmented lesions of the skin. In 1971, Rona MacKie had identified the advantage of surface microscopy for the improvement of preoperative diagnosis of pigmented skin lesions and for the differential diagnosis of benign versus malignant lesions. Dermoscopic patterns of pigmented skin lesions including melanoma were established and standardized in consensus conferences that were held in 1989 in Hamburg and 2001 in Rome. Principle of dermoscopy: (3) The basic principle is to transilluminate a lesion and then to study the same under a high magnification to visualize its subtle features. When light is incident on a skin surface it undergoes reflection, refraction, diffraction and absorption and the magnitude of each of these phenomena is influenced by physical properties of the skin. When light is reflected on a dry, scaly skin surface most of it is reflected back but when the same falls on a smooth, oily skin most of the light passes through it and reaches the deep dermis. Thus certain fluids are used to improve the translucency of the skin that includes oils (olive and mineral oil), liquid paraffin, glycerin and water. Hand-held dermoscope have the basic principles: The refractive index of glass is almost similar to skin and when it is in contact with oil-applied skin, it further enhances the transillumination and hence visualization. The application of a glass plate flattens the skin surface and provides an even surface for better examination. Videodermoscopy represents evolution of dermoscopy and it is performed with video camera equipped with optic fibers and lenses that currently allow magnification ranging from 10X to 1000X, and images are visualized on a monitor and stored using specific software on personal computer. Basic design of a dermoscope:(3) The essential components include: Achromatic lens: To achieve the desired magnification which ranges from 10X to 100X. Inbuilt illuminating system: Various illuminating systems are used that include: Halogen lamps emit yellow light which can alter the colour contrast of the lesions. Light emitting diodes (LED): Used in Delta 20 ©, Dermlite ©, provide high intensity and consume 70% less energy than the halogen lamps. The illumination provided can be adjusted by turning off a set of LEDs. Can also be designed to emit lights of different colors and hence wavelengths and this can help in better visualization of skin as the penetration of skin is directly proportional to its wavelength. Power supply: By batteries eg. Lithium ion battery or using rechargeable handles. The types of dermoscopy instruments that can be used include: Instuments without image capturing facility. Instuments with image capturing facility. Instuments with image capturing facility and analytical ability. Technique: (3) It can be done either by the non-contact or the contact technique. In the contact technique the glass plate of the dermoscope comes in contact with the fluid applied on the lesion whereas in the non-contact technique, there is no contact of the lens with the skin. The cross-polarized lens absorbs all scattered light and hence allows only light in one plane to pass through. The advantage of a non-contact technique is that there is no nosocomial infection but this is eclipsed by poor resolution and decreased illumination. The contact plates used are made mostly of silicon glass and can be graduated for measuring the size of the lesion. These contact plates should be sterilized by using either 2% glutaraldehyde or methylated spirit. It can be used for the diagnosis of melanocytic nevi, melanoma, lichen planus, dermatofibroma, cicatricial alopecia, seborrheic keratosis and to calculate the follicular density in the donor area before follicular unit hair transplantation. Dermoscopy of normal scalp:(32) Dermoscopy of the scalp can be performed with or without interface solution, which is referred to as dry dermoscopy. Dry dermoscopy is useful for observing tertiary structures of the skin, such as hairs, scaling and follicular hyperkeratosis. An interface solution (thermal water) is used to analyse follicular and interfollicular (vascular) patterns. Dermoscopy of the normal scalp shows interfollicular simple red loops, and arborizing red lines, which represents the normal vascular patterns, and honeycomb pigmentation in sun exposed areas and in subjects with darker skin. Follicular units are easily identified and usually contain 1 to 4 hairs. In children, dermoscopy often shows dirty dots corresponding to dust particles retained in the scalp. This feature is not observed in adolescents or adults as sebaceous secretions prevent particle deposition. Dermoscopic findings in alopecia areata: The characteristic findings are yellow dots, black dots, broken hair, tapering hairs corresponding to exclamation mark hair and regrowing vellus hair. Yellow dots: They are due to dilatation of the affected follicular infundibulum with keratinous material or sebum. (4) They vary in size, shape and colour. They may be round or polycyclic, yellow to pink.(33) They may be devoid of hair or contain miniaturized regrowing hair. They represent active and progressive disease. Although yellow dots are seen in androgenetic alopecia, female pattern of androgenetic alopecia, trichotillomania and discoid lupus erythematosus, the number of yellow dots is limited in these conditions as compared to alopecia areata, which shows numerous yellow dots and is its characteristic feature.(34) The incidence of yellow dots reported in the study by Inui et al (4) was 191 of 300 patients and in the study by Mane et al it was 81.8%.(35) It is speculated that this may be the result of yellowish skin colour of Asian patients. Another possible reason may be the different devices used: a handheld dermoscope (DermLite ® II pro) in the study by Inui et al vs. videodermoscopy and a handheld dermoscope by Ross et al (33) and only hand held dermoscope by Mane et al.(35) Black dots: They are remnants of exclamation hair and broken hair. They represent pigmented hairs broken or destroyed at the scalp level. They provide a sensitive marker of disease activity and disease severity.(4) The black dots of alopecia areata are characteristic of black haired individuals, including Asians, and these findings have not been used for the diagnosis of alopecia areata in white population. This feature may be attributed not only to hair colour but also to cuticle resistance. Takahashi et al (36) reported that Asian hair cuticles fall as large pieces while keeping their original shape under extension stress, whereas hair cuticles of white populations tend to collapse to form small fragments. They are also observed in dissecti

Practicum 7 Final Report

————————————————- University of Trinidad and Tobago ————————————————- School of Cognition and Learning Practicum VII Lecturers’ Names : L. Payne A. A Wilson L. Perez Student Name : Amrit Harrilal Student ID : 111007714 Contents Schedule of my classes4 Reflections5 LESSON PLANS13 WORKSHEETS THAT WERE/WERE NOT DISTRIBUTED32 POB lesson notes39 Principles of Accounts Lesson Notes52 Principles of Business Scheme of Work62 Principles of Accounts Scheme of Work64 Schedule of my classesAll of my classes were double periods. My subjects are taught for six periods in the six day cycle at the school. My first teaching day was on Wednesday 17th October for the last two periods of the day where I taught Principles of Business. My next class was on Friday 19th October fo r the first two periods, the subject was also Principles of Business. On Monday the 22nd October I taught Principles of Accounts and on Tuesday the 23rd October I taught Principles of Business for the first two periods and then Principles of accounts for the third and forth periods.My last teaching day was on Thursday 25th October however I was not able to teach this lesson due to the school having a cultural program for the scheduled time of my class which would have been the last two periods of the day. Reflections Reflection for first class. The first class that I taught was on Wednesday 17th October. The class was a double period and it was for the last two periods of the day. My co operating teacher miss Rodney was present as well as my supervisor Miss Perez.I believe that the class went well and I was able to achieve the objectives I set out to do in a reduced time period. There was a delay in starting the class because the teacher wanted to take roll, and I was waiting for st udents to come into the class to begin. I lost about 10 minutes waiting for the class to start and during this time I was beginning to get nervous. The class was hot and humid and my constant nervous perspiring was not making it any easier. After a little while the nerves were gone and I was able to talk normally to the class.The set induction that I used was effective because I used the example of 4 football teams and their leadership style and the students responded well to my set induction. The class is mainly boys and it is football season and the school is doing well in the local league so I thought it would have been a good idea to use the example of football teams to make the example more relating to the content. Throughout the lesson I referred back to the set induction to draw reference to the similarities between the teams and the different economic systems.As the class progressed I thought a student was testing me because of the question he asked which had nothing to do w ith the content that I was teaching. The question he asked was â€Å"what would happen if an unstoppable object were to hit an immovable object† I responded by saying â€Å"What does that question have to do with economic systems, but to answer your question, I believe that nothing would happen. † I thought I handled the situation well and my classroom management skills were effective, I walked around to check to see if they were taking notes and to generally have my presence felt throughout the class.I was getting a lot of questions from one side of the class and so my attention was mostly directed to that side of the class, something that I would like to remedy for my subsequent classes and for the rest of my teaching career. Due to the lack of time my assessment would have had to be done for homework. I did manage to complete the content that I wanted to teach. At the end of the class my supervisor told me that the lesson went well and in my future lessons to use gr oup work or group activities and to have some resources such as charts.The charts I think would have been a nice addition to the lesson, and maybe I can turn the chart into a game to make it fun and interactive for the students. The group work I was going to do it but after seeing another class work in groups or attempt to work in groups I think it would have worked against me. While observing a class they were arguing and not working together to do the case study and one student walked out of the class while I was supervising and I had to go talk to her outside and get her to come back in class.She was saying how she can’t work with people and how people are stupid. I told her that if she going into the business environment it is a lot of team oriented work that has to be done and that she should get accustomed to it from now. After that little conversation she came back into class. Another student was not doing anything in the class so when I asked him what he has done so f ar he said nothing. I asked him â€Å"Is that what you plan to do for the rest of your life, nothing? Are you going to live off your parents for the rest of your life? How are you going to mine a family? I was just asking him questions to think about his future he watched me and then after that he started doing some work. Supervising that class was a little challenge because of trying to get them to work together. They did not work how a group supposed to work. A few people were doing the work and the others were â€Å"loafing† and that defeats the whole purpose of group activities. That was the main reason I did not want to have group work. Another challenge that I know I have to work on was my handwriting on the board, and layout of the work on the board.At first I started writing notes on the board like I was giving a lecture and then I started putting the notes in a better layout. I plan to use the extreme left of the board to write objectives on the board and use the mi ddle and right of the board to give notes. I prefer to give notes in point form as it is easier to read and it is faster to write. It also allows students to get clear information rather than give an entire paragraph, it is easier to give them the points and they would be better able to understand and remember the information.Also previously I gave them handouts as my method for giving them information but most of the time those students never used the handouts, they did not read it and once I gave them it they just put it away. This term I decided to have them write it out rather than just give them the information. I would let them tell me what they know first and write it on the board even if it was wrong and then ask them to explain to try and make a link and to encourage them to answer and ask questions and make relations. After this is done the correct notes would be placed on the board and they would be told to write it down.Overall I believe that the lesson went well, I was a bit worried at first because it was the first time I met the students and it was my first class and my practicum advisor was coming to observe me as well, I felt I started off a little shaky and then when the butterflies left I was normal once again. At a point in time I even forgot I was being observed. The only hiccup I think was the example I used with Nike and the â€Å"Battas† but from the crosstalk I heard them mention Rattans and imitation goods so I believe they got the point I was trying to bring across.Aside from that if I had got the class to start on time I believe I would have gotten to at least start the worksheet. Reflection for the second class This class took place on Friday 19th October. The class was scheduled for the first 2 periods of the day but unfortunately I was only able to teach for one period. The school security were doing searches at the gate and this delayed me by an entire period as there were only 5 students in the class until around 9 when more kept filing in until I had about 11-15.This lesson we were supposed to do command economies and market economies but I was only able to do features and advantages of command economies with the time I got. I thought this was good because they took some time to settle, one of the students even suggested to me to start the class with a prayer and I did. I was surprised that they would even suggest it. It seemed to me that the prayer settled them because they were behaving, taking notes, asking and answering questions.I asked them to return the worksheet I gave them in the previous class but only two of them completed it so I told them to complete it for homework. This lesson went well also. The problem that I was having was again writing on the board. I know I have a problem with my handwriting and for that reason I bought a projector but after using it for only 2 months this year it malfunctioned and a component in the circuit board went bad leaving it useless. Aside from that th ere were no bad behaved students and I had to speak louder and spread out my questions more.I was getting a lot of questions from one side of the class so my attention was focused there mostly but I did ask questions to the left side but not as much as the right and middle. This is something I would have to remedy in my future classes. The cooperating teacher told me that she would see if she could get the AV room for me for my other classes, I think that would have been a great asset to the lesson because I would not have to write on the board and the students would have an easier time understanding and be in a cooler environment more suited for learning.Reflection for the third class My third class was on Monday 22nd October. I got to teach Mr Mustgraves Principles of Accounts class. After discussing my lesson plan with him on Friday he said it was good but he believed that I was trying to do too much for that lesson because of how the students behave and there level of motivation . So I adjusted it to suit his suggestions. The class had about 11 students out of 26 this was rather disturbing to me as I noticed a trend and I was rather worried about the students. The topic I was allowed to teach was that of Depreciation.For this lesson I planned to teach some theory about depreciation and then go into the CXC requirements of Straight line and reducing method calculation. To start the lesson I introduced my self to the class and began with telling them about my phone. I said how much I paid for it and how long I had it for and then asked a student so tell me how much they would pay for this phone right now. I then asked another student to tell me how much they would sell their phone for and how much they paid for it. From this they started paying attention and listening to me.As they told me why they would pay less for the phones I wrote the answers down on the board. This was done to introduce the term Depreciation and I think it was well received. From their answers I told them that the term we use to describe the reason the phone lost value was because it depreciated. From this set induction they were able to relate to me reasons an items value would be depreciated. When they gave a response I asked them to elaborate on it so as to have a better understanding so I can make it relate to the lesson.I did not want to discourage them from answering questions so when they said something that was incorrect I asked them to explain their reasoning for it to try and get them to think more along the correct lines by using probing questions and guided questions they were able to answer the initial question I gave them. After discussing the term depreciation, they took notes on depreciation. I then told them that for their examination purposes they would only be required to know two methods of calculating depreciation which were straight line and reducing balance method.I first told them how to calculate the straight line method but a critical mis take I made was not writing down the formula on the board. I told them what it was but I did not write it and I know that was not a good thing to do. I plan to write it on the board for the next class. While doing an example of straight line method I asked them what did they notice about the depreciation per year and they told me that it was the same. I then told them to keep that in mind.We then did the reducing balance method and I gave them an example and calculated the first two years for them so they would see what to do on one side of the board there was the straight line calculation and on the other side of the board was the reducing balance. While working the calculation I was talking to them asking them what to do next and writing on the board. After talking to the cooperating teacher the told me that he was amazed that they could use a calculator because to press the % button on the calculator was beyond them.I then told him well I did not write 30% in the calculations I w rote 30/100 because I assumed they would know that 30% , 30/100 and . 3 are the same in calculating a percentage of a value. So after doing this I went around and checked their books to see if they were working it out correctly, those who were doing it wrong I gave them guidance accordingly. I then asked them, spreading out my questions evenly this time, what to do next for each of the 5 years. One student told me an incorrect answer that I know could not be right because the value he gave me was larger than the initial value.So I went over to him to see what he was doing wrong on the calculator and it seemed to me that he did not know how to calculate the percentage of a value so I showed him and he was able to continue with the calculations. I spent a lot of time giving them individual attention and I can tell that they understood. To me this is the best part of teaching, when your students understand and they want to learn. They even asked me to continue teaching them and when I would be teaching them again.That was really heart warming to me and I really did feel motivated. I only had trouble from one student but he respected me enough to put his head down on the table and not disrupt the class when I was knocking on his table to wake him up the cooperating teacher shook his hand and signalled to leave him so I left him. When the bell rang one of the students asked me to explain something to him with regards to the profit and loss and balance sheet so I said let me go get my bag and I would be back.I returned and explained to him the format of the trading and profit and loss account and balance sheet, another student sat next to me while I was explaining and I could tell they were interested and they were understanding what I was explaining to them. They even told me that my class was the best accounts class they had in 2 years. After the class I asked for an evaluation from the cooperating teacher and he said it was good and that he did have some issues w ith how I portrayed my content. He said the content was not wrong but that there were better ways to display the information and only with practice that I would know of those methods.He said that some of the terms I used as well were not wrong but I were using it in the wrong context one of these were expense and expenditure, and costs. He said to be careful with the terms that I use to explain. Aside from these details he said my lesson was good and I felt it went well also. So to resolve the issues that came up I decided to show the depreciation in a table as Mr Mustgraves suggested and it was well received. I can understand why he said to show it in a table as it is easier to make comparisons between methods.This was an adjustment that I made to my initial lesson. For the follow up lesson I planned to do a review of the first lesson briefly going over the calculation and why items depreciate and then practicing the calculations with them. Reflection for the 4th Class This class t ook place on Tuesday 23rd October. It was for the first two periods of the day and the class was to teach Principles of Business. For this class I finished the disadvantages of the command economy and did the features and advantages of the mixed economy. I did not get to do disadvantages and distribute the worksheet.This class was good, the students were well behaved except for one or two little disruptions, which I think I handled well. One student was particularly animated and as I realised this I called him up to come and sit in front so he would not distract the other students. The objectives were not entirely met and therefore I did not want to distribute the worksheet that I had made for them. The only real problem that I can see would be the handwriting on the board. I did not get the AV room and so I had to write on the board once again. When the class was over I thanked the students for behaving good and for having me for the two weeks.The cooperating teacher also said the lesson went well and the only issue would be to work on my hand writing. Reflection for the 5th class This class took place on Tuesday 23rd October as well. It was for the 2 periods after the break which would have been from 10 to half 11. I went to the class early to draw up the tables for the depreciation. The students said that I real serious and I just laughed. When the bell rang I started the class by greeting the class and doing a short recap of the previous lesson. I wrote the formulas on the board and drew a square around them and gave them a heading.I told them to write it down in their books and I began working examples with them and checking their books to see if they were getting it out. The class had about 16 people on the day and so I had to give them some individual attention to bring them up to speed with the rest of the class with regards to the calculations. Some of them were having difficulty working the calculations so I needed to constantly check on them so ther e was a lot of walking around and individual attention. This class was mostly focused on practice as I was told that the students do not do their homework so the only practice they get is from what they do in class.This lesson went well as I left the class feeling that the students would be able to handle calculations of straight line and reducing balance method of depreciation. I believe that the objectives that I set out to achieve were accomplished as when looking at their books and hearing their answers the content was accurate and well defined. Overall Reflection The practicum experience for this semester was very heart warming and motivating. I really felt that the students learned the content in the classroom due to the examples that they were giving and the responses to the questions that I was asking.With a little probing questions and guiding questions the students were able to answer correctly and make valuable contributions to the class. Right now I am looking forward to going back to the school next term and hopefully preparing the Accounts class for final exams. I am really worried about the class and where they have reached in the syllabus. If I am to teach that class for the upcoming practicum they would have to cover a huge amount of work in a very short space of time this alone is enough to get any teacher worried and frustrated.Also I am very worried about the amount of students who do not attend the class and what would happen to them when they have to write exams. I would have to listen to some words from my secondary school teacher who told us â€Å"You can’t save them all†. It seems that she was right about that. The improvements that I believe I would have to work on would be my handwriting on the board or come up with alternatives to writing on the board. I also have to work on projecting my voice as well as sometimes I forget how loud the other classrooms can be and students may not hear me properly.I think that I have b egan spreading out my questions to all areas of the class and identified a few of the trouble students who might be a little disruptive. Also not setting unattainable objectives, you really have to cater your lesson for your class. Some of the little hiccups and delays can really throw off your lesson timing and how much work that you can get done for the period. Additionally I plan to start incorporating little group activities or exercises in my future lessons. I am looking forward to the next practicum experience and hope to become and even better teacher than before.LESSON PLANS LESSON PLAN SCHOOLEl Dorado East SecondaryYEAR2012-2013TERM1 FORM4G4DURATION OF LESSON80 minutesEXAMINATION BODYCXC SUBJECTPrinciples of BusinessNO. OF STUDENTS 26AGE RANGE UNIT TOPICThe Nature of BusinessLESSON TOPIC. Economic Systems GENERAL OBJECTIVESStudents will: 1 Demonstrate knowledge of the various types of Economic Systems SPECIFIC OBJECTIVESStudents will: Cognitive Domain 1Define economy and ec onomic system 2Describe the Traditional System 3Describe the Market System Psychomotor Domain 1Write short notes to develop note taking skillsAffective Domain 1Appreciate the significance of the various Economic Systems in Principles of Business Previous Knowledge Types of businesses, market, demand, supply TIME| ELEMENTS| CONTENT| TEACHING-LEARNING METHODS| TEACHING-LEARNING RESOURCES | TEACHER ACTIVITIES| STUDENT ACTIVITIES| EVALUATION| | Set InductionPresentation 1Summary 1Presentation 2Summary 2Presentation 3Summary 3EvaluationClosure| Short storyInform ObjectivesDefining – economy-economic systemIdentifying the 4 types of economic systemsReview of presentation 1Defining : – Traditional SystemWhat is it?Describe life in the traditional system. Review of presentation 2 Defining-The market systemAdvantages and disadvantages of the market systemReview of presentation 3ExerciseThank students and tell them to prepare for their next class| Discussing, QuestioningDiscussi ngQuestioningDiscussing, informing, questioningQuestioning, discussingDiscussing, informing, questioning Questioning , DiscussingDistribute worksheet. Lesson notes, black board, black board black board black board, Lesson notes black board Lesson notes, black board, black board Lesson notes, black board, black board. Lesson notes| DiscussionWriting on black boardAsking QuestionsDiscussionAsking questions,Discussion, writing on he black boardDiscussion, askingQuestions, writing on black board Asking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black board| Listening, respondingAnsweringAskingQuestions,Respondinglisteningwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, responding| FormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeSummative|A dditional lesson notes: I was not able to do the worksheet due to the late start of the class. The work sheet was distributed to do as homework. LESSON PLAN SCHOOLEl Dorado East SecondaryYEAR2012-2013TERM1 FORM4DURATION OF LESSON90 minutesEXAMINATION BODYCXC SUBJECTPrinciples of BusinessNO. OF STUDENTS 26AGE RANGE 14-16 UNIT TOPICThe Nature of BusinessLESSON TOPIC. Economic Systems GENERAL OBJECTIVESStudents will: Demonstrate Knowledge of the various types of Economic Systems SPECIFIC OBJECTIVESStudents will: Cognitive Domain 1 Describe the Command and Mixed economic system 2 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the Command economic system 3 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the Mixed economic system Psychomotor Domain 1Write notes neatly in their books * Affective Domain Appreciate the significance of the various economic Systems in business Previous Knowledge Types of businesses, market, demand, supply, market system, traditional system TIME| ELEMENTS| CONTENT| TE ACHING-LEARNING METHODS| TEACHING-LEARNING RESOURCES | TEACHER ACTIVITIES| STUDENT ACTIVITIES| EVALUATION| | Set InductionPresentation 1Summary 1Presentation 2Summary 2Presentation 3Summary 3EvaluationClosure| Review of Market and traditional conomiesInform ObjectivesDefining – command systemFeatures of command systemReview of presentation 1Advantages and Disadvantages of the Command SystemReview of presentation 2 Defining-The mixed systemFeatures of the mixed systemAdvantages and disadvantages of the mixed systemReview of presentation 3ExerciseWrite homework on the board, Thank students and tell them to prepare for their next class| Discussing, QuestioningDiscussingQuestioningDiscussing, informing, questioningQuestioning, discussingDiscussing, informing, questioning Questioning , DiscussingDistribute worksheet. Lesson notes, black board, black board black board black board, Lesson notes black board Lesson notes, black board, black boardlesson notes Lesson notes, black board, | DiscussionWriting on black boardAsking QuestionsDiscussionAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardDiscussion, askingQuestions, writing on black board Asking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black board| Listening, respondingAnsweringAskingQuestions,Respondinglisteningwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, responding| FormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeSummative| End of lesson notes: I was only able to teach for one period instead of two due to the bag searches at the gate delaying students to arrive to class on time. The class started at ten past nine when it was scheduled to start at nine. For this I would do the remainder of this lesson on my next teaching day which would be on Tuesd ay 23rd October. LESSON PLAN SCHOOLEl Dorado East SecondaryYEAR2012-2013TERM1 FORM5DURATION OF LESSON90minEXAMINATION BODYCXC SUBJECTPrinciples of AccountsNO.OF STUDENTS 26AGE RANGE 14-17 UNIT TOPICEnd of Period AdjustmentsLESSON TOPIC. Depreciation GENERAL OBJECTIVESStudents will: Demonstrate an understanding of depreciation using conventional accounting methods SPECIFIC OBJECTIVESStudents will: Cognitive Domain 1. Define Depreciation 2. List the causes of depreciation 3. Name the factors to be considered when calculating depreciation Psychomotor Domain 1. Calculate the Depreciation using straight line method 2. Calculate Depreciation using reducing balance method Affective Domain 1. Appreciate the significance of depreciation for the use in accounting 2. Value the importance of using Straight line or Reducing balance method in accounting Previous KnowledgeTIME| ELEMENTS| CONTENT| TEACHING-LEARNING METHODS| TEACHING-LEARNING RESOURCES | TEACHER ACTIVITIES| STUDENT ACTIVITIES| EVALU ATION| | Set InductionPresentation 1Summary 1Presentation 2Summary 2Presentation 3Summary 3EvaluationClosure| Story about phoneInform ObjectivesDefining * Depreciation * Causes of depreciation * Factors to consider when calculating depreciationReview of presentation 1CalculatingStraight Line methodReview of presentation 2 CalculatingReducing Balance MethodReview of presentation 3ExerciseWrite homework on the board, Thank students and tell them to prepare for their next class| Discussing, QuestioningDiscussingQuestioning, discussingDiscussing, informing, questioning, guidingQuestioning, discussingDiscussing, informing, questioning Questioning , DiscussingWrite exercise on board| Lesson notes, black board, black board black boardlesson notes black board, Lesson notes black boardLesson notes, black board, black board Lesson notes, black board, | DiscussionWriting on black boardAsking QuestionsDiscussionAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardDiscussion, askingQuestions, writing on black board Asking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black board| Listening, respondingAnsweringAskingQuestions,Respondinglisteningwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingAsking questions, Discussing, Responding| FormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeSummative| Additional lesson notes : I was able to complete the lesson LESSON PLAN SCHOOLEl Dorado East SecondaryYEAR2012-2013TERM1FORM4DURATION OF LESSON90 minutesEXAMINATION BODYCXC SUBJECTPrinciples of BusinessNO. OF STUDENTS 26AGE RANGE 14-16 UNIT TOPICThe Nature of BusinessLESSON TOPIC. Economic Systems GENERAL OBJECTIVESStudents will: 1Demonstrate Knowledge of the various types of Economic Systems SPECIFIC OBJECTIVESStudents will: Cogn itive Domain 4 Describe the Command and Mixed economic system 5 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the Command economic system 6 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the Mixed economic system Psychomotor Domain 1Write notes neatly in their books * Affective Domain 1Appreciate the significance of the various economic Systems in business Previous KnowledgeTypes of businesses, market, demand, supply, market system, traditional system TIME| ELEMENTS| CONTENT| TEACHING-LEARNING METHODS| TEACHING-LEARNING RESOURCES | TEACHER ACTIVITIES| STUDENT ACTIVITIES| EVALUATION| | Set InductionPresentation 1Summary 1Presentation 2Summary 2Presentation 3Summary 3EvaluationClosure| Review of market and advantages of command economiesInform ObjectivesDisadvantages of Command EconomiesReview of presentation 1Defining-The mixed systemFeatures of the mixed systemReview of presentation 2 Advantages and disadvantages of the mixed systemReview of presentation 3ExerciseThank students and tell them to prepare for their next class| Discussing, QuestioningDiscussingQuestioningDiscussing, informing, questioningQuestioning, discussingDiscussing, informing, questioning Questioning , DiscussingDistribute worksheet. Lesson notes, black board, black board black board black board, Lesson notes black board Lesson notes, black board, black boardlesson notes Lesson notes, black board, | DiscussionWriting on black boardAsking QuestionsDiscussionAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardDiscussion, askingQuestions, writing on black board Asking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black board| Listening, respondingAnsweringAskingQuestions,Respondinglisteningwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, responding| FormativeFormativ eFormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeSummative| | | | | | | | | Additional lesson notes : I was unable to complete this lesson due to the late start. I completed up to advantages of the mixed system and so the work sheet was not distributed. I plan to distribute the worksheet in my final class where the students would have all information to answer the questions correctly. LESSON PLAN SCHOOLEl Dorado East SecondaryYEAR2012-2013TERM1 FORM5DURATION OF LESSON90minEXAMINATION BODYCXC SUBJECTPrinciples of AccountsNO.OF STUDENTS 26AGE RANGE 14-17 UNIT TOPICEnd of Period AdjustmentsLESSON TOPIC. Depreciation GENERAL OBJECTIVESStudents will: 1Demonstrate an understanding of depreciation using conventional accounting methods SPECIFIC OBJECTIVESStudents will: Cognitive Domain 1. Explain the concept of depreciation 2. Assess the factors that cause depreciation Psychomotor Domain 3. Calculate the Depreciation using straight line method 4. Calculate Depreciation using reducing balance m ethod Affective Domain 3. Appreciate the significance of depreciation for the use in accounting 4. Value the importance of using Straight line or Reducing balance method in accounting Previous KnowledgeFixed asset, cost, current asset, depreciation, straight line method, reducing balance method, profit, loss, salvage value TIME| ELEMENTS| CONTENT| TEACHING-LEARNING METHODS| TEACHING-LEARNING RESOURCES | TEACHER ACTIVITIES| STUDENT ACTIVITIES| EVALUATION| | Set InductionPresentation 1Summary 1Presentation 2Summary 2EvaluationClosure| Quickly review how to calculate depreciation on the board. Inform ObjectivesPractice working an example of Straight Line method and reducing balance method as a classCorrect work done in presentation 1Practice working an example of Straight Line method and reducing balance method in pairsCorrection of the exerciseWork an example individuallyCorrect exercise.Thank students and tell them to prepare for their next class| Discussing, QuestioningWriting on th e boardDiscussingQuestioningWritingQuestioning, discussingWriting on boardDiscussing, informing, questioning, guidingQuestioning, discussingWriting on boardQuestioning , DiscussingWrite exercise on board| Lesson notes, black board, black board black boardlesson notes black board, Lesson notes black boardLesson notes, black board, black board Lesson notes, black board, | DiscussionWriting on black boardAsking QuestionsDiscussionAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardDiscussion, askingQuestions, writing on black board Asking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black board| Listening, respondingAnsweringAskingQuestions,Respondinglisteningwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, responding| FormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeFormativesummative| Additional lesson notes : I was able to complete the lesson. This lesson was a practical lesson where the students got to practice what they learned in he previous class until mastery of the content was attained. LESSON PLAN SCHOOLEl Dorado East SecondaryYEAR2012-2013TERM1 FORM4DURATION OF LESSON90 minutesEXAMINATION BODYCXC SUBJECTPrinciples of BusinessNO. OF STUDENTS 26AGE RANGE 14-16 UNIT TOPICThe Nature of BusinessLESSON TOPIC. Economic Systems GENERAL OBJECTIVESStudents will: 1Demonstrate Knowledge of the various types of Economic Systems SPECIFIC OBJECTIVESStudents will: Cognitive Domain 1 Explain the disadvantages of the Mixed economic system Psychomotor Domain 1Write notes neatly in their books * Affective Domain 1Appreciate the significance of the various economic Systems in business Previous KnowledgeTypes of businesses, market, demand, supply, market system, traditional system TIME| ELEMENTS| CONTENT| TEACHING-LEARNING METHODS| TEACHING-LEARNING RESOURCES | TEACHER ACTIVITIES| STUDENT ACTIVITIES| EVALUA TION| | Set InductionPresentation 1Summary 1Presentation 2Summary 2Summary 3EvaluationClosure| Review of command and features of mixed economiesInform ObjectivesDisadvantages of mixed economiesReview of presentation 1Quick Recap of all economiesReview of presentation 2 Review of presentation 3ExerciseThank students and tell them to prepare for their next class| Discussing, QuestioningDiscussingQuestioningDiscussing, informing, questioningQuestioning, discussingQuestioning , DiscussingDistribute worksheet to be done in class| Lesson notes, black board, black board black board black board, Lesson notes black board Lesson notes, black board, Lesson notes, black board, | DiscussionWriting on black boardAsking QuestionsDiscussionAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardDiscussion, askingQuestions, writing on black board Asking questions,Discussion, writing on the black boardAsking questions,Discussion, writing on the black board| Listening, respondingAnsweringAskingQuestion s,Respondinglisteningwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, respondingwriting, listening, asking questions, responding| FormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeFormativeSummative| | | | | | | | |Additional lesson notes : this would be the lesson for the class that I did not get to teach on Thursday 25th October due to the cultural programme that it had in the school. The plan for this lesson would be to finish off the last bit of content and then distribute a worksheet for the students to do in class either individually or in pairs. For the students who want to work by them self I planned to allow them to do so to allow for a smooth transition in the class and less disruptions in an already disruptive class. They would be allowed to use their resources to get the correct answers. There would be no reflection for this class as it was not actually taught. WORKSHEETS THAT WERE/WERE NOT DISTRIBUTED El Dorado East Secondary School Princ iples of Business Form 4 Date ______________________Student Name (block letters)_____________________________________________________________ 1. Economy can be defined as which of the following (tick the correct answer) A. The efficient use of resources B. The inadequate distribution of wealth in a country C. The study of demand and supply D. None of the above 2. The way a country utilises its resources to meet current and future needs is also referred to as economy True/False 3. In the space provided below name the different types of economic systems ————————————————- ————————————————- ————————————————- ——————à ¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- 4.This system is where people provided for themselves and their families through direct production. Name the system here ________________________________________ 5. Give an example of the above system _______________________________________ 6. Name 3 of the economic activities for the above system _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 7.A market is defined as ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Give three features of the Market System I. _____________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ II. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ III. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 9. List three Advantages of the market system ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 10. List 2 disadvantages of the Market system ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 11. What are your thoughts on the two systems discussed in class today? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ El Dorado East Secondary School Principles of Business Form 4 Date ______________________ Student Name (block letters)_____________________________________________________________ 12. What are some other names for the command system i. Planned ii. Directed iii. Controlled a. I,iii,iii b. I and ii only c. I only d. I and iii only 13.In a command system the government has control of all resources in the country. True/False 14. In the space provided below name 3 features of a command economic system ————————————————- ————————————————- ——————————†”—————- ————————————————- 15. Name three countries that practice the command economic system in more recent times ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 16.Give 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages of the command system ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ 17. The mixed economic system is a system where ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 18. Give three features of the Mixed System ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 19. List three Advantages of the mixed system ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 20. List 2 disadvantages of the Mixed system ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 21. What are your thoughts on the two systems discussed in class today? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ POB lesson notes Lesson Notes Introduction/Set Induction Story about the four football teams which represent one of each type of economic system.Each team has features of one of the major economic systems. Objectives Students will: Cognitive Domain 1Define economy and economic system 2Describe the Traditional System 3Describe the Market System Psychomotor Domain 1Write short notes to develop note taking skills Affective Domain 1Appreciate the significance of the various Economic Systems in Principles of Business Presentation 1 Defining Economy Economy * The efficient use of resources * The activities involved in the production and distribution of goods and services in a country or region * A countries income, products and resources and how efficiently these are being utilized to meet current and future needsDefining Economic System * The way in which a society organizes for the production and distribution of goods and services The 4 types of economic system * Traditional or subsistence economic system * Free market or laissez-faire or capitalist economic system * The planned/command/directed economic system * Mixed economic system Summary 1 – (Formative) What does the term economy mean? * The efficient use of resources * The activities involved in the production and distribution of goods and services in a co untry or region * A countries income, products and resources and how efficiently these are being utilized to meet current and future needsWhat do you understand by the term economic system? – The way in which a society organizes for the production and distribution of goods and services Name the 4 types of economic systems * Traditional * Command * Market * Mixed Presentation 2 Traditional system The traditional system is where people provide for them selves through direct production. Direct production is where a person satisfies his own needs by providing for him self and not depending on others to provide the good or service. Eg. Tribes, traditional Indians living off the land. Examples of these activities include hunting, fishing, gathering, skinning. Summary 2 (Formative) What is the traditional system?Give some examples of the traditional system in the world. What are some of the traditional economic activities. Presentation 3 The Market System What is a market? * An arra ngement where buyers and sellers are brought together to transact business. * A set of conditions that facilitates the exchange of goods and services or facilitates trade Market Economy * An economic system in which the open exchange of goods and services between producers and consumers takes place. * This is a hypothetical model, no country in the world that has an exclusive market economy. * There are countries where the private sector does have a controlling interest eg.USA, Brazil, Canada, Japan, Sweden. * Other names for market economy are – capitalist or free market or laissez-faire * The Factors of production are owned and put into operation by private individuals and organizations and not government * The producer sets up his business and determines production and profit targets based on available data. * The customer has the freedom to satisfy his wants and needs. * Customers would look for high quality and low priced goods, therefore manufactures who can provide thi s would prosper whereas those who cannot provide this may end up falling out of business due to a lack of profits. Advantages of the Market system Manufacturers can produce what the consumers demand and consumers can buy what they want * Decision making is not controlled so there is greater decision making about what to produce * The market economy is adaptable to changes in demand. * There is a large variety of goods and services to either produce or consume * Little government intervention or a lack of it * A greater degree of competition Disadvantages * Only the highest profit margin goods would be produced because the private sector is motivated by high profit margins * Consumers can be exploited if there is little competition ( monopoly) and very little government regulations for goods or services that are necessities. Eg water, electricity * It can lead to inequalities in the society as the rich get richer and the poor get poorer. oneEvaluation (Summative) See worksheet 1 in W orksheet Section. Lesson Notes Introduction/Set Induction Review of previous class, referring back to the story of the football teams and going over the features of the command economy and market economy. Objectives Students will: Cognitive Domain: 1 Describe the Command and Mixed economic system 2 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the Command economic system 3 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the Mixed economic system Psychomotor Domain 1 Write notes neatly in their books * Affective Domain 1Appreciate the significance of the various economic Systems Presentation 1 Command System Other names for the command economic system – planned economic system, directed economic system * An economic system where the government controls the factors of production * The government manages and distributes resources to the citizens. * The state decides the quantity and the type of products to produce Command system features * The state dictates the distribution of wealth * The production, price and distribution of goods and services, the employment or persons the dismissal of personnel, the payment for services rendered all rest with the state. * Eg of command economies – the Peoples Republic of China,Republic of Cuba, Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (North Korea), Republic of Vietnam. Summary 1 – (Formative) What is the command system?Give some examples of the command system in the world. Name some features of the command system Presentation 2 Advantages of command system * Reduced wastage of resources due to State making decision about what to produce and directs resources into these areas * Profits gained from state industries may be used to generate further production and expand the provision of public goods and services. Eg hospitals , welfare programs, national security * Consideration may be given to providing better working conditions for state employees * No group of individuals can force prices up because the State sets the prices and pays salaries. * Income is more evenly distributed Workers may tend to increase their efficiency because they may feel they are working for their countries and for them selves * Government intervention is high to prevent unfair practices against consumers and imbalance against firms. Disadvantages * Wastage of manpower because a lot of people is required for central planning * Conflict may arise because what the state decides with regard to production or needs may not be what the people really want * Equal treatment of unequal may take place. Eg someone who is working more efficiently than another may be getting paid the same salary which is very de-motivating. * It stifles creativity due to the lack of incentives for initiative. Production is usually ahead of demand and this may lead to waste as once the consumers need is satisfied they may not purchase a good they think is of inferior quality or unattractive. Summary 2 (Formative) Name some of the Advantages and di sadvantages of the command economy Presentation 3 Mixed Economies Features * Both the government and the private sector participate in the decision making process about what to produce , how and for whom it is to be produced for. * Key services such as education, policing, health and roads and other infrastructure are provided by the government but private firms can also provide these services. * The state has productive activities through state owned corporations and nationalized industries * Private owned businesses compete with government owned business Advantages The state passes laws to protect against unfair trading practices * Both government and the private sector can cooperate in the delivery of certain services through franchising Disadvantages * Too much government regulation would dampen the free enterprise spirit * Some state owned industries are allowed to operate inefficiently resulting in wastage of resources * If the government intervenes and sets a maximum and mini mum price it may be difficult to regulate due to forces of demand and supply. Summary 3 * What are some of the features of the mixed system * What are the advantages and disadvantages of the mixed system Evaluation (Summative)See worksheet 2 in Worksheet Section. Principles of Accounts Lesson Notes Lesson Notes Introduction/Set Induction Talk about your phone and ask the question `how much would you pay for this phone`. Give them the cost price of the phone, how long ago it was bought, the features of the phone and how functional it is. ( how much scratches, falls it had for slight humour). Ask them why would they pay less for it and write the reasons they give on the board. These reasons would be categorised later on in the lesson. Objectives Students will: Cognitive Domain 1. Define Depreciation 2. List the causes of depreciation 3. Name the factors to be considered when calculating depreciationPsychomotor Domain 1. Calculate the Depreciation using straight line method 2. Calculat e Depreciation using reducing balance method Affective Domain 1. Appreciate the significance of depreciation for the use in accounting 2. Value the importance of using Straight line or Reducing balance method in accounting Presentation 1 What is depreciation The part of the original purchase price of the fixed asset consumed during its period of use by the firm. Ask what is a fixed asset Review fixed assets * Assets that are long life * Used in the business * Not used mainly for resale The amount that is deducted from the cost price. Depreciation is an expenseDepreciation is charged to the profit and loss account and would therefore reduce profit. Causes of Depreciation -Physical deterioration -Economic factors -Depletion Physical depreciation * Wear and tear * Erosion, rust, rot and decay Economic factors * Obsolescence -> comes from the word obsolete. The asset is no longer up to date and may not be used or be inefficient as compared to newer models * Inadequacy – > the ass et would be inadequate for the firms use. For example when a firm upgrades or expands it might not be efficient to use a small transport truck, it would be more efficient to use a larger transport truck or have a larger fleet of vehicles. The smaller vehicles would be sold to a smaller firm. DepletionOver the course of time a natural resource would be depleted or reduced from constant extraction. Eg natural gas, oil, mineral deposits. There are two methods used to calculate depreciation The straight line method Reducing balance method Summary 1 – (Formative) What is depreciation What are some of the causes of depreciation. What are the two methods of depreciation Presentation 2 Straight line method Called the fixed instalment method. You would have a cost price of the asset Might have a resale value of the asset Formula – cost price – resale value number of years of use eg a piece of machinery costs $50,000 it is estimated that it would be resold for 5000 at the end of 5 years.To calculate the depreciation using the straight line method 50000-5000 = 45000 = 7000 5 5 The depreciation would be $7000 per year for 5 years If the machinery had no resale value the calculation would be Cost price / years of use 50000/5 = $10,000 per year for 5 years The straight line method depreciates an asset for the same amount every year. Summary 2 (Formative) Calculate the depreciation on an asset costing 100000 for 5 years. The resale value is estimated at 10000. Use the straight line method to calculate the depreciation. Presentation 3 Reducing balance method Depreciates an asset by a reducing amount each year by a percentage. Also known as the diminishing balance method. EgCost price 20000 Depreciation (20%)20% of 20000 = 4000 Value of asset after one year = cost price – depreciation = 16000 Depreciation for second year = value of asset – depreciation Value of asset after first year = 16000 Depreciation (20%)= 20/100 * 16000 = 3200 Value of asset after second year = 16000-3200 = 12800 Value of asset for third year = current value of asset – depreciation Value of asset = 12800 Depreciation (20%) = . 2 * 12800 = 2560 Value of asset = 12800-2560 = 10240 Value of asset for forth year = current value of asset – depreciation Value of asset = 10240 Depreciation = . 2 * 10240 = 2048 Value of asset = 10240-2048 = 8192Value of asset for 5th year = current value of asset – depreciation Value of asset = 8192 Depreciation = . 2 * 8192 Value of asset = 8192- 1638. 4 = 6553. 60 Once an asset has been depreciated for its full life its book value and resale value should be equal. * Give this if they are getting it out quickly To calculate the depreciation per month you would have to calculate the depreciation per year and then divide that value by 12 to calculate the depreciation per month. Calculate the following Using reducing balance method and straight line method calculate the depreciation for 4 years on an as set costing 10000 and the depreciation is 40% per annum. Principles of Business Scheme of Work

The Opinion Essay Student Samples 4th Grade Pitfall

The Opinion Essay Student Samples 4th Grade Pitfall You need to have a lot into account when creating a compelling body of work like a college-grade essay. It isn't important to us, whether you're too busy on the job concentrating on a passion undertaking, or simply tired of a seemingly infinite stream of assignments. There's too much info to show in a more compact area. Our service, for example, has a good group of writers composed of well-versed and expert writers who have specialized in many fields of writing to help students in comprehending a variety of aspects of writing. Whenever you opt to ask us for expert help, don't hesitate to speak to our support managers. It could well be the sole exposure an employer has to your abilities and abilities, and that means you ought to be positive that its a document that may convince a hiring manager that you're capable of filling the position. 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The Excesses Of Caligula Essay - 1239 Words

The Excesses Of Caligula Why were the actions of Caligula regarded as excessive? Why was such behaviour important in the evaluation of an emperors image? When Caligula took the title of emperor of Rome, the population of that vast empire felt that a new dawn was emerging. Here was someone with youth on his side to reign over them, by contrast after the aged Tiberius. Because of his earlier travels with them on their campaigns, he had the loyalty of the troops, which was always important in a militarist empire. But the biggest thing he had going for him was his direct family contact with the revered Augustus, Caligula through his mother was the great grandson of the man and his reign was hoped to take them back to what was already†¦show more content†¦This document is about the excesses of the rule of Caligula, and reveals them in all their shocking horrors and shows just how the population should fear absolute power. Other of his excesses emerges further into this source. We see that he also had the ?statues of the gods? including ?Zeus? brought to Rome, to have their heads removed and ?replaced with his own this is impiety of a great degree. If this was not considered excessive enough, the most powerful man in the known world decided to stand between the gods of ?castor and Pollux and was worshipped by those that approached; being called or hailed as Jupiter of Latium?. He had his own ?Priests? and a ?golden life-sized statue ? of himself, with the influential becoming his priests, just by merely spending their money on him ensured their influence on the most powerful man in the world. Birds obtained at high cost and from throughout the empire were sacrificed in his name, ?Victims were flamingos, peacocks, woodcocks, guinea hens and pheasants? P256). These birds have a certain majesty that would suggest poignancy at their deaths. This is hinted at by Suetonius use of the word ?victim?, truly deeply excessive behaviour by Caligula. Claudius by contrast knew how to behave better when he was offeredShow MoreRelatedSex in the City-the Roman Empire1579 Words   |  7 Pagesmuch worse. Born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, Caligula got his nickname meaning little boots from the miniature army boots he wore as a child. After his parents and two older brothers died, Caligula was forced to live with Emperor Tiberius in his villa. In fact it was Tiberius who arranged for Caligulas mother and two brothers to be killed (Suetonius 150). Forced to be at the whim of an old man who killed most of his family, Caligula was doomed to witness and participate in disgustingRead MoreSummary : Claudius Drusus Germanicus 1716 Words   |  7 Pages(Morgan 13). Clearly born into a highly selectively bred family, the expectations for success were of mammoth proportions. At the age of two, Agrippa (Nero s mother) was banished to the Pontian Islands by Caligula and his familial inheritance was seized only a year later when his father died. Once Caligula was dethroned, Agrippina (Nero s mother) was allowed back into Rome and Nero was given a good education as a potential new political leader. When Agrippina was re-married, it was to her uncle, the emperorRead MoreThe Roman Principate, An Era That Has A Clear Induction Essay1868 Words   |  8 Pagesposition, the princeps, or emperor, needed to have the loyalty of the armies. Augustus defeated Antony because he had the loyalty of the armies. Claudius, though a more intellectual ruler, made his presence in the armies very clear from the beginning. Caligula did not have the loyalty of the armies, and he died by the hands of soldiers. The entire shape of the hierarchy in Rome, is dependent on what role the military is playing. It is possible that the princeps could have attempted to strip the military